Friday, April 23, 2021

淺談遊戲化語言學習


傳統的教育思想中並沒有把遊戲視為能幫助學生學習的工具,因為要投入心力才能學到東西,而遊戲的重點就是在玩樂,而玩樂是用功的對立面。不過在電腦輔助語言學習普及後,學者們也開始注意到遊戲其實有使學生用功學習的原素如團隊合作(collaboration)與任務導向(goal-orientation)。本文旨在探談遊戲化語言學習的基本觀念與整合目前實證研究的結果,另外由於筆者的專長為二語語用學,所以多數的例子接取於二語語用學的研究中。在進入正文前要先釐清三個相關但不相同的名詞: Game-based learning, Game-enhanced learning, and gamification. Reinhardt (2019)把game-based learning定義為教育遊戲,如Sykes (2008)設計Croquelandia,玩家必需用適合的請求與道歉的語用策略,才能在遊戲中升級。而game-enhanced learning則在光譜的另一端,主旨是讓學生打一般的線上遊戲,而研究者從中觀察各種語言能力的發展。如筆者的博士論文即是讓七位二語學習者搭配兩位英語為母語的玩家,玩三個月的魔獸世界,筆者則做為觀察者記錄在語料中反應的語用能力的變化。最後gamification則是一般教師都會使用的,就是用遊戲的原理如積分來引導學生學習。例如美國大學的課綱都會標注完成各項任務可得幾分,總分達到某個數字就能通過這門課。本文的重點在game-based and game-enhanced learning.在討論遊戲語言學習的益處時首先要探談主要的理論基礎:Interactionist paradigm of language learning (Long, 1996; Schmidt, 1993; Swain 1985) and situated learning theory (Lave & Wenger, 1991).
遊戲語言學習的理論基礎
遊戲語言學習的理論根基源於Michael Long在博士論文中提出的input hypothesis (Long 1985). Long透過觀察二語學習者和母語者溝通的過程中得出來自母語者的反饋(feedback)能有效使二語學習者內化並調整自身的中介語(interlanguage). Swain (1985)進一步提出除了Long的內化過程,二語學習者也要能夠把內化的語言結構表達出來,這樣才能提升自身的語言能力。最後是Richard Schmidt觀察一位二語學習者Wes的學習過程(Schmidt, 1993),提出二語學習者必需要留意(notice)到input,並將input內化入自己的中介語中,才能在語言學習的道路上前進。這三位學者的理論整合就是interactionist paradigm of language learning.對玩家而言,在遊戲中,尤其是像魔獸世界這類的多人線上角色伴演遊戲(multiplayer online role-playing game),玩家因為任務需求需要和很多人溝通,從中就有學習語言的契機。
另外一項理論則是Situated Learning Theory,也稱Community of Practice Theory.此理論的假設是在一個社群中有經驗豐富的老人,也有剛進社群還在學習的新人。這些新人如學徒般的跟著老人學習(apprenticeship),慢慢的能從新手變成老手。 魔獸世界等的MMOPRG本身就是一個虛擬世界,玩家們一開始可以單打獨鬥,但是如果想要進到更進一步的如dungeon或raid,就需要組工會,才能團隊進入。而在打dungeon中團隊合作是很重要的,每個玩家的角色都有專屬的工作,要依領導的指揮進行。另外好不容易打完一個怪物後,如何分享戰利品也是需要玩家們溝通的。
談完遊戲語言學習的理論後,最後談談目前研究所得出的四項遊戲化語言學習的特質(Ko, in press; Reinhardt & Thorne, 2020).
遊戲化語言學習的特質
1. 遊戲提供豐富的語言接觸空間
     多數的遊戲都有一套完整的故事內容,玩家在遊戲中要升級時需要完整了解如何完成電腦控制的角色指派的任務,從中可以有完整的目標語接觸與學習(target language interaction). Thorne et al. (2012)研究魔獸世界的任務,發現與一般所想的不一樣,實際上這些任務含藏豐富的單詞與句型,其難度可比歐洲語言歐洲語言共同參考架構(European Common Framework)中高級的程度。另外Sundvquist (2019)長期追蹤挪威小學生在課外玩遊戲的研究中發現打遊戲時間長的孩子(一週平均玩6小時)英語詞彙量增加的比較快。另外筆者的研究也發現這些二語學習者在遊戲中慢慢學會如何有效整合遊戲開局與結束(appropriate opening and stepwise closing)。一開始玩家們登入就開始做任務,沒有什麼隊友之間的溝通,而時間到了也就馬上下線。但是隨著角色能力的提升,他們開始發現需要一開始就組織好每一次要做什麼任務,然後再結束前需要回報自己的角色升級的程度與組織下一回合的任務。
2.遊戲提供重複練習的機會
     遊戲能提供語言學習的另一項優勢就是可以在做不同的任務時不斷練習(iterative play)同樣的語言技能,從而讓語言知識內化(procedurization).Sykes (2014)在設計Croquelandia時加入重複執行同樣的任務,不過結果發現多數玩家都是因為用了不合適的語用策略無法過關,或是因為遊戲當機只好重新再做同樣的任務。只有1成的人是希望能嘗試不同的語用策略才繼續做同一個任務。Sykes得到的結論是學生應該把遊戲視為一個學習的平台(playing to learn perspective),這樣才能完整運用任務達成語言練習的機會。
3. 遊戲提供良好的學習環境
     在遊戲的虛擬空間玩家都是用角色(avatar),所以提供語言程度不同的學生在沒有壓力的情況下運用目標語。這對在英語非官方語言的國家的學生很有幫助。Reinders & Watanna (2012)改造仙境傳說(Ragnorak Online)讓泰國的學生每週打一小時。經過六週他們發現相對於在英語課上學生很少發言,在遊戲中學生使用的語言量是課堂中的六倍。另外Peterson (2012)讓日本學生打以日本動畫為背景的遊戲Wonderland中也得到因為遊戲中的角色和本人有一段距離,所以可以盡情使用英語,不用怕用錯詞或句型被嘲笑。
4.任務導向與回饋
    玩家如果要在遊戲中提升自己角色的能力,就要完成電腦指派的任務,同時提升到一個程度時需要和其他玩家合作才能得到更高的能力。在這種互動的過程中需要透過不斷的溝通,有利於提升語言能力。McNeil (2020)在課程設計中加入讓修大一英語的韓國學生每週於課外玩一小時的遊戲,打完後需要回報每一次學習到的單詞或句型。經過六週的時間發現學生透過遊戲中學到新的單詞與語用策略。另外在Holden & Sykes (2013)設計的手機遊戲Mentira也發現回饋對提升學生在西語上的語用能力很有幫助。特別是老師與同儕的回饋讓這些玩家們能把別人的語用策略內化到自己的語言使用中。最後遊戲化學習不只能運用在英語學習裡,對漢語學習一樣有幫助。Taguchi et al. (2017)設計了一項模擬外國人到上海遊學的遊戲,並透過oral discourse completion test與選擇題來測示學生在遊戲前後對漢語慣用語(Formulaic expressions)認知與使用的提升。結果顯示這些學漢語的外國學生經過遊戲的洗禮能更了解漢語中的慣用語,並且能正確選用慣用語。
結語
根據對這二十年的遊戲化語言學習的研究證明,遊戲不會阻礙學生學習語言,反而是對語言學習有實質的幫助。以下提供一個教案供在教學現場的老師們參考。
老師們可以選用一項符合學生語言程度的遊戲,安排學生每週的課堂上留15分鐘玩,然後透過學習單(work sheet)再下堂課開始和學生回顧上週遊戲學到的內容。另外也可以透過角色伴演(role-play)來評估學生實際在遊戲中學到的語用策略。

晉龍先生筆
辛丑年孟夏書於潛龍齋

Selected References
Ko, W. (2020). Developing pragmatic competence in game-mediated communication contexts: The case of World  of Warcraft. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Texas A&M University.
Ko, W. & Eslami, Z. E. (in press). Developing pragmatic competence in digital game worlds: A systematic review. TESL-EJ, 25.
Reinhardt, J. (2019). Gameful second language and foreign language teaching and learning: Theory, 
research and practice. Palgrave-Macmillan.
Reinhardt, J., & Thorne, S. (2020). Digital game as language-learning environments. In J. Plass, R. 
Mayer, & B. Homer (Eds.), Handbook of game-based learning (pp. 409-436). MIT Press.

Saturday, April 17, 2021

新冠疫情下求職經驗分享--PTT留學版



量有多寬福有多厚  聰明的你就別再迷惑
立下的志願   道始終持修 要知道成功也要經歷波折

感謝上天慈悲,感謝前賢們的苦心成全,歷經十個月的努力終於在美國找到TAMU Data Analyst的工作,而且工作單位願意加急辦工作H-1B.回想一路以來求職的心路歷程,真的上面訓文所說的:量有多寬福有多厚。先自我介紹,後學去年從TAMU取得語言學博士學位。在學期間除了在學業上精進外,由於在台灣求學的時候就受到道場與伙食團前賢的照顧,到美國後也立了講師愿,所以也用課餘的時間成立伙食團,讓海外學子有一個學習道學,互相成長的園地。當然找工作這件事始終是盡人事才能聽天命。在相對比較小眾的專業,只有一年的OPT, 加上美國疫情控制一直不是很理想的情況下,基本上找工作必需先求有再好。這篇文章算是分享將近一年找工作的心路歷程。
一. 不要讓自己的固執耽誤自己
2020一月在Houston的活動,一位在McMaster任教的前賢就很明確和後學建議先找教職以外的工作。當時後學覺得還沒畢業時間還夠,所以也就沒有太放在心上。一個月後在SUNY Buffalo任教的前賢,也是我們單位的領導也和後學說他在協助一位道親求職時注意到後學有在學校行政單位工作的經驗,建議可以先找職員的工作,等到身份問題解決了再找教職。當時心裡還是很不平衡,覺得為什麼同學們博班畢業都找到教職或博後,但後學只能做職員?依然繼續投教職。結果COVID 19延燒的速度比後學想像的快,從封城開始各大學的財務也受到嚴重的影響,開始收到很多Hiring freeze的信。當時已經畢業,只有一年合法留在美國找工作的機會,在百般無奈之下只好轉申請職員的工作。一開始其實還是往線上學習(instructional design)的工作申請,因為後學的博論就是做線上學習相關的題目,但是經過幾個學校面試還是發現實作經驗不足,無法說服雇主。其實當時就有道親提點後學做為外國人,找資料分析相關的工作比較有優勢,但後學對自己量化能力(quantitative skills)有懷疑,所以並沒有真的採納他的意見。後來還是後學的博班導師轉了TAMU Data Analyst相關的職位,後學因為一心想留在德州才申請。 結果面試的過程主管對後學的經驗相當肯定,所以回頭想想難怪孔子說:君子務本,本立而道生。求職的過程就是對自己過往的經驗重新整理,也是自我撿視的好機會。一定要深刻的自我認識,才能做出正確的判斷。
二. 知行合一很重要
回頭想想申請線上教育的工作除了實務經驗不足外,其實被拒絕的另一個原因是後學根本只是把這些工作當成跳板,總想著疫情一過就要回頭找教職的工作。但後學這樣的心態當然逃不過面試官的法眼,甚至在面試UIUC社工學院工作時其中一位面試官直接提問:你剛拿到博士學位,現在卻來申請職員工作。請問你要如何調適身份和工作性質轉換這件事?所以找工作的時候一定要很清楚自己的定位,不能抱著反正騎驢找馬的心態。尤其國際學生還有身份的限制,對雇主而言聘用我們的成本比用美國人高很多。這時就要再感謝McMaster教授的一席話。由於在博班的過程中碰到一些完全無法接受的事,當時後學是一心要離開德州。感謝上天慈悲請他來提點後學:伙食團是你創的,現在創辦人居然想要離開,這樣讓之後找工作的道親怎麼想?另外也要感謝人在華府的中醫師告訴後學之前工作一直沒有結果是因為上天要讓後學想清楚一些事。從結果來看如果不是後學突破了自己的心結,成功調整對很多人事物的看法,也不能得到這樣的結果。
三.要對自己的工作負責
在找工作的時候有很多不確定,感覺隨時都要離開美國,但是道場的職務也不能因此停下來。曾經後學在找工作找到很挫折時和道場的經理反應我不要辦了,凡業都固不好了還想著聖業?經理語重心長的告訴後學說他也在找工作,但是並不能因為樣就停下修辦的腳步。而且經理也提點聖業凡業是一體的,你把上天的事當成自己的事,上天也把你的事當成祂的事,從素食訂購這件事後學深有體悟。 因為疫情的關係很多店的生意都受到影響,經理介紹我們和休士頓的一家素食店合作,買滿某個價位他們願意送貨到府。當時後學處理這件事時只是想著就反正能鼓勵道親吃素就好了。但是後來開會時經理就慈悲為何不對外開放和更多人結緣?而且做事情不應該精益求精嗎?當時雖然覺得找工作都這麼累了還要處理公家事務覺得很煩,但是前賢有交待後學就要盡力完成所以還是做了。之後訂購的人變多的,訂一次常常都要花半天才能處理完。當時心裡當然也會不平,覺得都快沒工作了怎麼還有時間來做這些事情?還好後學還是堅持做下去了,最後證明上天慈悲,量有多大福有多大。老實人也不是機器,除了固定時間申請工作之外還是要有正常的人際交流。而疫情讓人和人的接觸變的很困難。但是感謝有和道親面交的機會,得已維持正常的人際交流,而且還可以藉機成全道親。
結語
後學在道場修辦十幾年,讀過也聽過很多上天顯化的故事。當時後學都覺得那些人都是天選之子,一定輪不到後學。但是從找工作的經驗後學深深感覺真正的顯化就是因為對道理的了解,能夠深入自己的生命,從觀念上調整才能改變命運,誠如聖人所言:盡人道,行天道。

翼鵬 筆
辛丑年孟夏書於潛龍齋


新冠疫情下求職經驗分享

                   人中騏驥化育讚   法華常轉九品蓮 


感謝天恩師德,感謝點傳師、講師、引保師與前賢苦心栽培,歷經十個月的努力終於在美國找到工作,而且工作單位願意加急辦工作簽證(H1-B).回想一路以來求職的心路歷程,真的如訓文所說的:量有多寬福有多厚。也印證了多倫多陳點傳師說的:外觀因緣,內觀自性。回頭想想原來上天早在三年前就把路鋪好了,只是後學內心不夠清明所以沒有看懂。立講師愿時有一條:聽師調遣。後學當時在找工作時因為情況實在太差,雖然很希望能讓道在德州生根,但是畢盡留下來才是重點,所以當時也是全美各地的工作都申請,但最後只有德州兩間學校進到final interview.所以一開始上天就是要後學留下來繼續深耕德州的道務,以後就後學這十個月的經驗總結出三個求職心得,希望能供之後要求職的前賢參考。
一.不要讓自己的固執耽誤自己
2020在休士頓忠德的率性進修班,主班陳點傳師就很慈悲和後學建議先找教職以外的工作。當時後學覺得還沒畢業時間還夠,所以也就沒有太放在心上。幾個月後美國中西部(後學的單位)王點傳師也和後學說他在協助一位道親求職時注意到後學有在學校行政單位工作的經驗,建議可以先找職員的工作,等到身份問題解決了再找教職。當時心裡還是很不平衡,覺得為什麼同學們博班畢業都找到教職或博後,但後學只能做職員?依然繼續投教職。結果COVID 19延燒的速度比後學想像的快,從封城開始各大學的財務也受到嚴重的影響,開始收到很多工作凍結的信。當時已經畢業,只有一年合法留在美國找工作的機會,在百般無奈之下只好轉申請職員的工作。一開始其實還是往線上學習的工作申請,因為後學的博論就是做線上學習相關,但是經過幾個學校面試還是發現實作經驗不足,無法說服雇主。其實當時就有道親提點後學做為外國人,找資料分析相關的工作比較有優勢,但後學對自己量化能力有懷疑,所以並沒有真的採納他的意見。後來還是後學的博班導師轉了德州農工大學資料分析的職位,後學因為一心想留在德州才申請。 結果面試的過程主管對後學的經驗相當肯定,所以回頭想想難怪孔子說:君子務本,本立而道生。求職的過程就是對自己過往的經驗重新整理,也是自我撿視的好機會。一定要深刻的自我認識,才能做出正確的判斷。
二. 知行合一很重要
回頭想想申請線上教育的工作除了實務經驗不足外,其實被拒絕的另一個原因是後學根本只是把這些工作當成跳板,總想著疫情一過就要回頭找教職的工作。但後學這樣的心態當然逃不過面試官的法眼,甚至在面試伊利諾伊大學社工學院時其中一位面試官直接提問:你剛拿到博士學位,現在卻來申請職員工作。請問你要如何調適身份和工作性質轉換這件事?所以找工作的時候一定要很清楚自己的定位,不能抱著反正騎驢找馬的心態。尤其國際學生還有身份的限制,對雇主而言聘用我們的成本比用美國人高很多。這時就要再感謝多倫多陳點傳師的一席話。由於在博班的過程中碰到一些完全無法接受的事,當時後學是一心要離開德州。感謝上天慈悲請多倫多陳點傳師提點後學:伙食團是你創的,現在創辦人居然想要離開,這樣讓之後找工作的道親怎麼想?另外也要感謝人在美國首府黄講師告訴後學之前工作一直沒有結果是因為上天要讓後學想清楚一些事。從結果來看如果不是後學突破了自己的心結,也無法得到上天慈悲撥轉。
三.要對自己的愿力負責
在找工作的時候有很多不確定,感覺隨時都要離開美國,但是道場的職務也不能因此停下來。曾經後學在找工作找到很挫折時和點傳師反應我不要辦了,凡業都固不好了還想著聖業?經理語重心長的告訴後學說他也在找工作,但是並不能因為樣就停下修辦的腳步。而且經理也提點聖業凡業是一體的,你把上天的事當成自己的事,上天也把你的事當成祂的事,從素食訂購這件事後學深有體悟。 因為疫情的關係很多店的生意都受到影響,經理介紹我們和休士頓的一家素食店合作,買滿某個價位他們願意送貨到府。當時後學處理這件事時只是想著就反正能鼓勵道親吃素就好了。但是後來開會時經理就慈悲為何不對外開放和更多人結緣?而且做事情不應該精益求精嗎?當時雖然覺得找工作都這麼累了還要處理公家事務覺得很煩,但是前賢有交待後學就要盡力完成所以還是做了。之後訂購的人變多的,訂一次常常都要花半天才能處理完。當時心裡當然也會不平,覺得都快沒工作了怎麼還有時間來做這些事情?還好後學還是堅持做下去了,最後證明上天慈悲,量有多大福有多大。老實人也不是機器,除了固定時間申請工作之外還是要有正常的人際交流。而疫情讓人和人的接觸變的很困難。但是感謝有和道親面交的機會,得已維持正常的人際交流,而且還可以藉機成全道親。
結語
後學在道場修辦十幾年,讀過也聽過很多上天顯化的故事。當時後學都覺得那些人都是天選之子,一定輪不到後學。但是從找工作的經驗後學深深感覺真正的顯化就是因為對道理的了解,能夠深入自己的生命,從觀念上調整才能改變命運。感謝上天慈悲讓後學有機會在美國修辦。最後以後學佛法啟蒙恩師學仁大仙李點傳師的慈語作結:

 

                                           修道要真修,辦道要真辦,功德火候要俱全!


翼鵬    筆
辛丑年孟夏書於潛龍齋

Thursday, June 2, 2016

美國教育類博班心得隨筆

居然讓金光大此等高人點名,小弟真是受寵若驚啊!!!
首先說明,雖然本人博士論文處理有關遊戲在語言學習上的運用,不過小弟主修是語言學,
分在課程教學所下面的,所以對教育科技的了解沒有金光大多(捂臉
從申請上來說,美國教育類的博士班的確可以直接申請,不需要碩士。不過課程設計上會
變向強迫你再拿一個碩士。以TAMU為例,學士畢業直攻博班需完成96個學分,而有碩士
學位則是修64學分(51個in-class hours, 13個research hours)。所以強者我朋友趕著四年
畢業的結果就是找教職的那學期都還在修課,因為他就是大學畢業直攻博班。(不過他強到找教職可以拒絕港大兩次,其實也沒差了XD)
小弟當年雖然想讀博士班,不過原先想研究的方向偏向理論語言學,後來陰錯陽差到
TAMU讀書,老闆剛好對語用學(pragmatics),尤其是L2 Pragmatics(developmental aspect of communicative competence in nonnative speakers, Bardovi-Harlig, 2013)特別感興趣,所以碩論寫了有關英語為第二外語學生請求行為發展之研究(Interlanguage pragmatic development in requests in emails).而博論走上遊戲則是因為有一位同學正在做相關的題目,他研究學生打魔獸世界時對詞彙和溝通能力的發展過程。所以小弟老闆就指定我做相關的題目,把重點放在L2 pragmatics。
另外關於教育科技方面,小弟系上新開了一個教育科技方向的program,裡面有一位松田老師(Dr. Noboru Matsuda是從CMU過來的,做的是人工智慧在教育上的應用。細說就是研究人員優化smart tutoring agent(不知道中文怎麼翻),然後再由機器去指導學生(SimStudent project).另一位
老師則是做閱讀教育的研究。教育科技的好處就是好拿funding,這兩個老師分明手上有IES 200萬與300萬美金的計畫。但是,基本上教育科技和HCI一樣,需要各式各樣不同的人才,所以想進
入這一塊定位要清楚。不過如金光大說的,只要你能證明有基本的研究能力,進到博士班後方向
都還可以改,小弟也沒想到選來選去居然會做遊戲相關的題目啊(茶
最後,怎麼能證明有基本的研究能力?基本上要把paper投上好的journal難度很高(教育類頂級的journal都標榜80% rejection rate),所以一般申請博士班老師也不會期望你有這種record.但是統計能力就是一個佐證研究能力的方法。雖然教育研究有質化與量化研究,但是大部份的老師還是以量化為主。統計能力強在設計研究時有很大的優勢,因為你很清楚那些方法有什麼優缺點(e.g., ANOVA只能用balanced design,然後如果violate homogenity of variance結果要仔細驗證)。不過其實你有公費,只要老師相信你的潛力願意收你,其他的東西都可以進來再學。以上...再次感謝金光大點名!希望金光大和小弟的拙文能引出更多高手指教!


翼鵬
德州農工大學
丙申年仲夏書於潛龍齋

Sunday, December 20, 2015

Book Review of Ex Libris: Confessions of a common reader


Anne Fadiman’s book Ex Libris contained eighteen exquisitely crafted essays which chronicled the author and her family’s dedication to their books and bibliomania. The first impression the book left me is its Latin title and its lists of low frequency words which conveyed the author’s erudition on reading and writing. Indeed, it is only natural that Fadiman would have an excellent command of Latinate words, with a long pedigree of writing in the family (a renowned television personality father and World War II correspondent mother). Fadiman (1998) wrote her family “viewed all forms of intellectual competition as a sacrament” (p. 14) as she and her family would complete for the now defunct weekly television program “G.E. college”, a show where two teams of four students representing different universities went against each other for scholarship money. Self-described as Fadiman U., she confessed they only lost to Brandeis and Colorado College in six years of competition.

            This is definitely a book for people who cherish books and like to read a book about books as Fadiman (1998) recounted her family’s unbridled love to books and editing. Specifically, “Insect a Carrot” described about one time when the Fadiman sat down in a restaurant for dinner, they could not help but fervently start proof-reading the menu as if the act of editing would have satiated their appetite. Or in “The Catalogical Imperative”, where Fadiman confessed her love of reading and editing Nordstrom catalogues even though she should have no business receiving those catalogues. Another topic which may interest bibliophiles is Fadiman’s description of other famous authors’ book collections in “My Odd Shelf”. For example, George Orwell collected ladies’ magazines from the 1860s and he enjoyed reading them in his bathtub. Moreover, Fadiman’s classification of carnal and courtly book lovers would definitely bring a smile to many people interested in underlining, making marginal notes, tearing pages out or continuing reading books until they fall apart.

            Despite these accolades, there are still some limitations to this book. First of all, this book reads more like a collection of autobiographical essays whose purpose is to present a bibliomaniac’s life-long love affair with her husband, her children and her books. Therefore, readers who are specifically looking for guideline on writing will definitely be disappointed because the only tip they can get is to mimic Anne Fadiman’s style, which is helpful to some extent, but nevertheless is not the same as to read a writing guide. In addition to its content, some of the essays are commissioned pieces that Fadiman wrote in a column called “The Common Reader” in Civilization Magazine (Lehmann-Haupt, 1998). Although Fadiman did bring some age-old topics such as secondhand books, reading aloud and plagiarism a new life, lack of a central theme make these chapters disjointed. Finally, readers not familiar with Western literary works would find some part of the book unreadable due to lack of prior knowledge on the subject. Although more familiar authors like George Orwell or John Updike were mentioned, authors like Ernest Thompson Seton and Father O’Reilly are less familiar to the general public. The unfamiliarity may impede comprehension of what Fadiman (1998) was trying to get across in those passages.

            Overall, Fadiman provided witticisms and entertaining details on a seemingly mundane subjects like editing and reading. If you are an avid reader who enjoys Western literature and are undaunted about the sometimes trifling task of looking up some esoteric words that you have never before encountered in your life, this is the right book for you.


翼鵬
德州農工大學
乙未年仲冬書於潛龍齋

Wednesday, May 6, 2015

Linearity of Time and Education
Lo thy dread empire, Chaos is restored;
Light dies before thy uncreating word:
Thy hand, great Anarch lets the curtain fall
And universal darkness buries all.
(as cited in Doll, 1993, p. 86)
Introduction
   As an international student pursuing a doctorate in a foreign country, my friends constantly asked me whether they should go for a doctoral degree after they receive their master’s. Their concern is that the time spent on getting a Ph.D. degree will not be worth the investment. It is as if an educational process is a linear timeline, which you start from your bachelor’s degree and end in the culmination of Ph.D. Their thinking always baffles me but the above quote from Pope helped me put their thinking in perspective. In essence, as Slattery (1995) has argued, the philosophy of modernity has resulted in a rejection of chaos by emphasizing the manipulation of time through expert time management and quantifying the achievements through finishing “assigned tasks” (e.g., finishing your Ph.D. degree in three years with a number of good publications). This concern for racing through your life courses has resulted in popular metaphors such as time flies and carpe diem, as if time is an entity that can be controlled. Or alternatively as Huebner (1975) opined that the belief in the linearity of time exerted pressure on educators to establish clear and verifiable goals. In this paper I attempt to first describe a linear perspective on time and what postmodern perspective on education can offer an alternative understanding of time.
Modernist Perspective on Time
   According to Slattery (2013), the modern mechanistic view of time has its origins from the Seventeenth century and the Newtonian vision of the universe as a giantclock system with time marching forward like a stream in a trajectory that is irreversible. Thus because time is conceptualized as never-ending and irrevocable, there is also an incessant motivation for a goal-oriented constraints because you simply cannot waste your time. Slattery (1995) opined the solution to this constant constraint on time for educators is to develop technology and organizational structures that will allow for more efficient allocation of time. However, these technological innovations did not fundamentally solve the problem of the thinking that human progress can be conceptualized as linear sets of events which can be broken down, segmented, isolated and then evaluated. This perspective as culminated in the policy of No Child Left Behind (NCLB), which stipulated observable students’ progress through standardized tests.
   However, as Dewey (1938) wrote, we are always living in a historical present and it is the present moment that is the focus of our experience. The Buddha also cautions in Diamond Sutra that you cannot own hearts of past, present and future because they are all illusions and has nothing to do with your Buddha nature. Happily, postmodernism has offered us a way out of this impasse by integrating the fusion of the past and the future into the existential present. In other words, the past and future are combined when we are living at the present. The following section elaborates on how a postmodern perspective on time can offer us a way out of current deadlock.
Postmodernist Perspective on Time
   Slattery (1995) has explained that a rejection of the assumption of concrete, historical time in favor of a process-oriented view of education, or in Deweyean sense, experience. As Hueber (1975) emphasized so convincingly “The very notion of time arises out of man’s existence, which is an emergent. The future is man facing himself in anticipation of his own potentiality for being” (p. 244).
   The implication for post-modernist perspective on time is Doll’s (1993) vision of curriculum as a process and learning and understanding results from dialogue and reflection. Alternatively, Pinar (2013) conceptualized curriculum as consisting of four stages, the regressive moment, the progressive moment, the analytic moment and the analytic moment. Or as Slattery (2013) argued, “Reconceptualized curriculum theory understands time and history as proleptic- that is as the confluence of past, present and future in the synthetical moment” (p. 68). The implication for educators is a focus on learners’ autobiographical experience and the interconnectedness of all experiences. It rejects the strict adherence on quantifiable results and linear progression of time with an eclectic celebration of chaos. As Doll (1993) has explained, chaos is not purposeless and destructive but quite complex and orderly. It is a complexity best exemplified by the butterfly effect, which M.I.T. climate scientist Edward Lorenz discovered in his simulation of weather patterns. As Slattery (2013) argued, this dynamic pattern exists in the classroom and every teacher recognizes this reality. Therefore we have to lament that we are trying to use an unfit model to a reality that only exists in our imagination.
Conclusion
   So what is the response that I gave to my friends worrying about whether a doctoral education is worthy of investment? I used my personal experience as a reference point. Being a career A-minus student, I am not so brilliant that I entered the doctorate program straight out of college. I have applied and been rejected by graduate programs of linguistics, in which my passion lies. It took some twists and turns and some fortune on my part to finally land a spot working on linguistics in an education department. However, the time lapses actually did not affect my study. In fact, I not only gained more experience with linguistics by reading papers by myself but also gained practical work experience when I spent two years working as a English teacher in Taiwan. Therefore my advice to them is think long and hard before you make a decision, and if you decide to pursue your doctorate, dedicates yourself to your study. If you work hard enough, the time lapses actually would not harm you!

翼鵬
德州農工大學
乙未年仲夏書於潛龍齋


Friday, April 17, 2015

Prosody of Multiple Englishes

Prosody of Multiple Englishes Lecture Notes
Guest Lecture by Lucy Pickering at Language Matters Working Group, April 17, 2015

Prosody: Suprasegmental features of sounds such as stress, intonation and tone

Multiple Englises (Kachru, 1992): The recognition that English comprises of three different circles used by people of different ethnicities

Inner circle: Native Speaker Model (e.g., American English, English English)

Outer circle: Institutionalized varieties of English (e.g., Indian English, Singaporean English)

Expanding Circle: Emerging varieties (e.g., China English, Japanese English)

Functions of Intonation in English

Rising—Inclusive, shared understanding (e.g., The pope is Catholic?)
Falling---Assertive (e.g., Time is up)
Level----Neutral (e.g., The assignment is due on Monday night)

The problem of prosodic cues in the speech of international teaching Assistants
No use of rising intonation for rapport-building similar to Gumperz’ (1982) study of Indian waiters

No Contrastive stress

E.G.,
Zhuo: The phone number is 979 4225143
Wei: 9794224143?
Zhuo: No 979 4225143

The lack of contrastive stress led to linguistic penalty (Roberts & Campbell, 2006)

翼鵬
德州農工大學

乙未年孟夏書於潛龍齋